Birth Trauma: The Psychological Effects of Obstetrical Interventions
Emerson, William R.
Vol. 13 (1), 1998, 11-44

Based on his clinical practice and four separate measures of birth trauma, the author and his colleagues found that 45% of babies experience high levels of birth trauma requiring specialized treatment. Another 50% experience mild to moderate trauma. The article discusses theoretical concepts that make the negative effects of obstetrical interventions understandable based on years of observing interventions and their outcomes, and the effects of the interventions as observed in clinical practice.

Nature, Nurture and the Power of Love
Lipton, Bruce H.
Vol. 13 (1), 1998, 3-10

Leading research in cell biology reveals that "environmental signals" are primarily responsible for selecting the genes expressed by an organism. This new perspective is in direct contrast with the established view that our fate is controlled by our genes. The new emphasis on nurture (environment) controlling nature (genes) focuses special attention on the importance of the maternal environment in fetal development. In addition to the established role of maternal physiology, it is now recognized that maternal behaviors and emotions profoundly impact the child's physical development, behavioral characteristics, and even its level of intelligence.

Insidious Trauma Caused by Prenatal Gender Prejudice
Zimberoff, Diane, & Hartman, David
Vol. 13 (1), 1998, 45-52

When the inherent value of females is marginalized by society, the resulting trauma may produce depression, anxiety, dissociation, decreased self-esteem, victimization, displaced anger, somatic ailments, and despair. Ultimately, trauma from gender bias (or racial bias) is insidious trauma, an assault on every level of security a person has: physical, psychological interpersonal, and spiritual. The damage is devastating when the trauma occurs during the pre- and peri-natal period. Regression therapy seems to facilitate healing experiences, as indicated by a case study from Taiwan.

Chronic Grief--Spiritual Midwifery: A New Diagnostic and Healing Paradigm
Gowel, Elaine Childs
Vol. 13 (1), 1998, 53-62

In this essay, the author draws on her clinical experience to reconfigure the present psychological paradigm to identify a deep, lifelong anomie she terms "chronic grief," comprising developmental and neurological components. Body and altered state work are suggested as techniques of spiritual midwifery.

Two Voices from the Womb: Evidence for a Physically Transcendent and a Cellular Source of Fetal Consciousness
Wade, Jenny
Vol. 13 (2), 1998, 123-148

In recent years, prenatal research has demonstrated that fetuses are far more sophisticated than previously thought, findings generally ignored by the medical and psychological establishment in part because the neurological structures traditionally associated with mentation were not believed to be functional. Recent research on memory suggests that consciousness may not be dependent on the central nervous system, or even on the body. Using each major theory of memory and neurological research to examine the prenatal data, this paper concludes that two sources of consciousness are present before and during birth constructing a single subjective experience of the self.

Perinatal Death: How Fathers Grieve
Wagner, Timothy, Higgens, Patricia Grant, & Wallerstedt, Cheryl
Vol. 13 (2), 1998, 85-98

The purpose of this study was to explore with fathers their perinatal death experiences. Data were collected from 11 fathers who experienced a perinatal death. Fathers who experienced a perinatal death in the second trimester or later reported having a more intense and more prolonged grieving experience. Grief intensity diminished over time and remained mild to moderate for as long as five years following the death. Fathers felt their experience was misunderstood and inadequately supported by family, friends, and co-workers.

Prenatal Language Learning
Childs, Marshall R.
Vol. 13 (2), 1998, 99-122

Prenatal language learning is an important aspect of human development. During the third trimester, a fetus can hear the mother's voice clearly, and makes use of this ability by learning the rhythms, tones, and sequences of whatever languages the mother speaks. These phonological patterns do not stand apart from context, but instead are experienced as integral parts of the mother's moods and activities. By building up neural patterns in the brain, the baby gets a head start on the phonological contours, grammars, and uses of the mother's languages.

Looking Back: Finding our Voice (a reprint of Presidential Address--IV International Congress on Pre- and Peri-Natal Psychology)
Verny, Thomas R.
Vol. 13 (3-4), 1999, 191-200

This state-of-the-field address traces the emergence of pre- and peri-natal psychology as a field of legitimate scientific inquiry in the United States, and the resistance to it from various groups, including feminists, the right wing, and members of the scientific establishment. It argues for the field's potential as an agent for sweeping social change. (Reprinted from Vol. 4 [3], 1990.)

Birth Trauma in Infants and Children
Ward, Shirley A.
Vol. 13 (3-4), 1999, 201-212

This article briefly traces the history of the theory of birth trauma and birth psychology and outlines diagnostics indicated by infants and children and their treatment.

Prenatal and Perinatal Foundations of Moral Development
Dosh, Millicent Adams
Vol. 13 (3-4), 1999, 213-222

Drawing on the literature of pre- and peri-natal psychology, the author argues that moral development and moral education must take this early period into account. Mutual connection or affectional bonding between people, when honored during prenatal life, birth, breast feeding and early infancy, act as a template influencing how later experiences are felt, perceived and integrated.

The Biopsychosocial Transactional Model of Development: The Beginning of the Formation of an Emergent Sense of Self in the Newborn
Eichhorn, Donis, & Verny, Thomas R.
Vol. 13 (3-4), 1999, 223-234

The rationale for providing an emotionally positive experience for both the infant's "emergence of self" (Stern, 1985) and of his return to the "Secure Base" (Bowlby, 1988) of his mother vis-a-vis his innate ability for "self attachment" within the first hour after birth (Righard & Alade, 1990) is explored. Giving birth and being born are both physiological and psychological processes. Since it is now known that the interaction between the infant and his mother creates the structure and organization of the infant's developing brain, it is important to become aware and responsive to the self-attachment research.

The Effects of Domestic Abuse on the Unborn Child
Gilliland, Amy L., & Verny, Thomas R.
Vol. 13 (3-4), 1999, 235-246

This paper explores the relationship of domestic violence toward a pregnant mother on the subsequent behavior of her child. Through examination of the literature on physical abuse during pregnancy a picture emerges of the fetal environment. Exposure to this environment was consistently shown to have detrimental effects in infancy, childhood, and adult life particularly evidenced by emotional and behavioral disorders, and increased evidence of criminal and violent behavior and suicide.

Antecedents to Somatoform Disorders: A Pre- and Perinatal Psychology Hypothesis
Lyman, Bobbi J.
Vol. 13 (3-4), 1999, 247-254

The somatoform cluster of behavioral disorders is the single-most frequent class of unexplainable problems found in primary care medical settings today. What is known about these disorders is that there are physiological, social and psychological variables that need to be considered. What is not known is how a person develops a propensity toward having physical symptoms as their primary complaint. The author suggests that humans are classically conditioned when faced with intolerable emotional experiences in the womb or during birth. The residual feelings are laid down in the developing brain's neural pathways in an adaptive strategy of escape and avoidance (focusing on the body instead of the feelings), allowing the organism to survive.

The Importance of Prenatal Sound and Music
Whitwell, Giselle E.
Vol. 13 (3-4), 1999, 255-262

This article provides a brief overview of the importance of sound, music and learning during prenatal life.

Before I Am, We Are
Freeman, Mac
Vol. 13 (3-4), 1999, 263-278

This essay discusses a social construction of self in relation to the mother during the prenatal period, drawing distinctions between dependence and dependency as the self is formed in relationship. The notion of duet as a metaphor and of a duocentric rather than egocentric development theory is proposed and elaborated.

Dying to Be Born, and Being Born to Die: Cell Death as a Defining Pattern in Human Development and Death
Caldwell, Christine
Vol. 13 (3-4), 1999, 279-284

Treating the constant cycle of death and rebirth at the cellular level, and its necessity, this paper places birth and death within a cycle of evolution.

The Role of Childhood Memory Scores in Parenting in Pregnancy and Early Postpartum
O'Leary, Joann, & Gaziano, Cecilie
Vol. 13 (3-4), 1999, 285-302

In this study, parents enrolled in childbirth classes during the third trimester of pregnancy (n=117) were given questionnaires four times to determine which variables suggested by previous research were most related to negative or positive childhood memory scores, present relationships, demographic variables including intention to become pregnant, and whether fathers and mothers differed in the measure of childhood memories. Participants did not differ significantly by gender on demographics, family of origin or intention to conceive. Variables most related to negative childhood memory score were high anxiety mood scores at one week postpartum, growing up in a household lacking one or both parents, and having few relatives to whom participants felt close.

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